1. Subject-verb Agreement.
Contractions
WRONG: He don’t get it.
RIGHT: He doesn’t get it.
Using a Singular or Plural Verb
WRONG: John and Mary is here.
RIGHT: John and Mary are here.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns, Plural Indefinite Pronouns.
WRONG: Everyone take out their pens.
RIGHT: Everyone take out his (or her) pen.
(Reminder: the singular indefinite pronouns are anyone, everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, one, each, either, anybody, no one).
2. Comma Blunder (Run-ons).
WRONG: Running two sentences together without conjunctions or correct punctuations.
RIGHT: John saw her arrive, he was glad. (run-on)
RIGHT: John saw her arrive, and he was glad.
RIGHT: John saw her arrive; he was glad.
RIGHT: John saw her arrive. He was glad.
3. Fragments.
Fragments are parts of sentences punctuated as if they were complete. Often, broadcasters use fragments. Please do not do so in writing.
WRONG: Because it rained. (dependent clause)
WRONG: Into the night. (prepositional phrase)
WRONG: Relieved of his problems. (past participial phrase)
WRONG: Jumping into the water. (present participial phrase)
RIGHT: Because it rained, we stayed home.
RIGHT: The police worked long into the night. (or, Late into the night, the police worked to find the culprits).
RIGHT: Relieved of his problems, his mood brightened.
RIGHT: Jumping into the water, Harry started swimming.
4. Faulty Pronoun Reference. Do not shift persons in mid-sentence.
WRONG: I like to run because running builds your muscles.
RIGHT: I like to run because running builds my muscles.
WRONG: When someone overeats, they may get overweight.
RIGHT: When someone overeats, he may get overweight.
5. Shifts in Tenses. The simplest tense to use is the simple past tense. Almost all print journalism should be written in the simple past tense.
WRONG: Mary meets John and married him.
RIGHT: Mary met John and married him.
Friday, March 2, 2007
Other Punctuation
Quote Marks.
Quote marks indicate exact words used by the speaker. The quote marks always go outside the punctuation marks. He said, “I will not run for mayor.”
Semi-Colons.
Semi-colons have two uses. One is to connect two sentences close in meaning, They are used in place of the Coordinating Conjunction. The boy left; he was tired.
The second use of the semi-colon is to hold name and title: The officers of the club are: Jane Smith, president; Janet Jones, vice president; Harry Smythe, treasurer.
Hyphens and Dashes.
Hyphens connect words, such as in the sentence, The gray-haired teacher left.
When the hyphen is used, it often makes two words that are not adjectives into adjectives. In this case, “gray-haired” modifies “teacher.”
The dash is used to say, That is to say.
Example: No one left—no one had the courage.
Quote marks indicate exact words used by the speaker. The quote marks always go outside the punctuation marks. He said, “I will not run for mayor.”
Semi-Colons.
Semi-colons have two uses. One is to connect two sentences close in meaning, They are used in place of the Coordinating Conjunction. The boy left; he was tired.
The second use of the semi-colon is to hold name and title: The officers of the club are: Jane Smith, president; Janet Jones, vice president; Harry Smythe, treasurer.
Hyphens and Dashes.
Hyphens connect words, such as in the sentence, The gray-haired teacher left.
When the hyphen is used, it often makes two words that are not adjectives into adjectives. In this case, “gray-haired” modifies “teacher.”
The dash is used to say, That is to say.
Example: No one left—no one had the courage.
Punctuation: Periods and Commas
Punctuation makes ideas clear for they help the readers’ eyes move from one idea to the next.
The Period:
1. The period ends declarative sentences. I am tired.
2. The period is used to abbreviate dates. It was Jan. 25, 2006.
3. The period indicates a decimal point. It cost $2.95.
4. The period follows someone’s initials. He is called J.T. Smith.
The Comma:
1. Separates independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, yet, for). If a sentence is short, no comma is needed. McCrary’s use of the unnecessary metals is annoying, but the students put up with his lectures. I like him for he is nice.
2. Separates a dependent clause preceding a main clause. Since he left early, he missed the performance.
3. Separates words that might be unclear. What the problem is, is unclear.
4. Separates words in Apposition. John Smithton, president of the Ayers Foundry and first man to run for mayor from the newly-formed District One, denied any knowledge of the payoff.
5. Separates parenthetical words and phrases necessary for transitions. However, the man was arrested later.
6. Separates year, date, city and state. It was Jan. 10 when he left Dallas, Texas.
7. Separates exclamatory figures. John Smith, 22, was arrested, according to police.
8. Separates nominative of address. He said, Mr. Speaker, may I have the floor?
9. Separates off direct quotes. She said, “How about you, Mister Speaker?”
10. Separates items in a series. The old, green, house collapsed in the high wind.
11. Separates prepositional, participial and infinitive phrases preceding the main clause. Having suffered heavy losses, the troops withdrew. To provide the incentive, Jones listed six options. After days of heavy filibustering, the Senate passed the bill.
The Period:
1. The period ends declarative sentences. I am tired.
2. The period is used to abbreviate dates. It was Jan. 25, 2006.
3. The period indicates a decimal point. It cost $2.95.
4. The period follows someone’s initials. He is called J.T. Smith.
The Comma:
1. Separates independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, yet, for). If a sentence is short, no comma is needed. McCrary’s use of the unnecessary metals is annoying, but the students put up with his lectures. I like him for he is nice.
2. Separates a dependent clause preceding a main clause. Since he left early, he missed the performance.
3. Separates words that might be unclear. What the problem is, is unclear.
4. Separates words in Apposition. John Smithton, president of the Ayers Foundry and first man to run for mayor from the newly-formed District One, denied any knowledge of the payoff.
5. Separates parenthetical words and phrases necessary for transitions. However, the man was arrested later.
6. Separates year, date, city and state. It was Jan. 10 when he left Dallas, Texas.
7. Separates exclamatory figures. John Smith, 22, was arrested, according to police.
8. Separates nominative of address. He said, Mr. Speaker, may I have the floor?
9. Separates off direct quotes. She said, “How about you, Mister Speaker?”
10. Separates items in a series. The old, green, house collapsed in the high wind.
11. Separates prepositional, participial and infinitive phrases preceding the main clause. Having suffered heavy losses, the troops withdrew. To provide the incentive, Jones listed six options. After days of heavy filibustering, the Senate passed the bill.
Clauses
Clauses may have both a subject and verb but only one kind can stand alone. The independent clause can stand alone. The dependent clause can not. One way to construct a dependent clause is to attach a subordinate conjunction to it.
Example: He is nice. I like Bob. Because he is nice, I like Bob.
Examples of how to start sentences is simply using grammar.
Infinitive: To dream is relaxing.
Present Participial Phrase—using two sentences close in meaning then using one with the –ing form of the verb and combining the ideas:
Confounding the experts, Jones scored the touchdown.
Past Participial Phrase: Relieved of his problem, Jones was happy.
Gerund: Running is the newest craze.
Verb: Look for the best and brightest to lead the students. (“You” understood).
Example: He is nice. I like Bob. Because he is nice, I like Bob.
Examples of how to start sentences is simply using grammar.
Infinitive: To dream is relaxing.
Present Participial Phrase—using two sentences close in meaning then using one with the –ing form of the verb and combining the ideas:
Confounding the experts, Jones scored the touchdown.
Past Participial Phrase: Relieved of his problem, Jones was happy.
Gerund: Running is the newest craze.
Verb: Look for the best and brightest to lead the students. (“You” understood).
Phrases
A phrase contains either a subject or verb, but not both. There are two kinds of phrases used in sentences: prepositional phrases and verb phrases. The Prepositional Phrases are used mostly as adjectives or adverbs. There are three kinds of Verb Phrases or verbals: infinitives, used as nouns, adjectives or adverbs; and Participles, used as adjectives, and Gerunds, used as nouns.
Examples:
1. Prepositional Phrases.
The house with the red shutters is mine.
2. Infinitives:
(as nouns) To dream is wonderful.
(as objects) He wants to become King.
3. Participles (verbs used as adjectives)
The man reading the novel is my friend.
4. Gerunds (used as a subject or direct object):
(as subject) Reading can be fun.
(as object) She relaxes by reading. (reading is the direct object of buy).
Examples:
1. Prepositional Phrases.
The house with the red shutters is mine.
2. Infinitives:
(as nouns) To dream is wonderful.
(as objects) He wants to become King.
3. Participles (verbs used as adjectives)
The man reading the novel is my friend.
4. Gerunds (used as a subject or direct object):
(as subject) Reading can be fun.
(as object) She relaxes by reading. (reading is the direct object of buy).
Reviewing clauses and phrases
College students are expected to know grammar, or the correct use of words in sentences. In every college English, History, Economics, or any other class, a student is expected to be able to use complex sentences as well as compound and simple sentences. A complex sentence has at least one dependent clause and an independent clause. A compound sentence is simply joining to independent clauses with the conjunction, “and.”
The simple sentence is just that: a simple independent clause.
The simple sentence is just that: a simple independent clause.
The Conjunctions
Conjunctions join words, phrases or clauses and they indicate relationships. There are four kinds.
(1) Coordinating Conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, yet, for.
Coordinating Conjunctions join phrases or clauses of equal rank. Independent clauses can stand alone. These have a subject and verb.
Baker and Byrd will confer at noon. (simple addition)
Baker and Byrd will confer at noon, but experts agree they probably won’t agree.
The men must swim or drown.
The men must swim, or find something to keep them afloat.
(2) Correlative Conjunctions are used in pairs. They connect clauses so closely that neither makes sense without the other. The Correlative Conjunctions are both-and, either-or, neither-nor, Not only-but also.
Both Betty and Ann will attend.
Either Betty or Ann will attend.
Not only Betty but also Ann will attend.
(3) Conjunctive Adverbs act like conjunctions but also like adverbs. They are used for transitions. The conjunctive adverbs are also, furthermore, likewise, Moreover, however, nevertheless, still (meaning but), otherwise, therefore, Hence, accordingly.
When using these adverbs, a semi-colon is used.
Example: Wilson failed to understand that the military units could not move against the enemy; however, he realized his mistake by mid-day.
Wilson failed to understand that the military units could not move against the enemy; nevertheless, he kept trying to get the troops to move.
(4) Subordinating Conjunctions introduce dependent or subordinate clauses and join the subordinate clause to the independent clause. A dependent clause depends on the independent clause for its meaning or complete the thought. The Subordinating Conjunctions are because, as, since, where, whence, Although, though, even, if even it, unless, that, so that, in order that, so, That, such that, as, as if, before, until, when, as since.
Examples: Because he left early, he missed refreshments. (The word, “Because,” makes the words, “he left early,” a dependent clause. Because the sentence starts with a dependent clause, a comma separates the dependent from the independent clause, “he missed refreshments.”
If the independent clause comes first, no comma is needed.
Examples: Where we had decided we would wait, they decided to leave early.
Even if Marcus apologizes, I wouldn’t trust him.
(Now, with the dependent clause following the independent clause) I wouldn’t trust him even if Marcus apologizes.
Although we calculated the math correctly, the teacher said we missed the point.
The teacher said we missed the point although we calculated the math correctly.
If she said so, it must be so.
Unless we try harder, we shall never make the team.
(1) Coordinating Conjunctions: and, or, nor, but, yet, for.
Coordinating Conjunctions join phrases or clauses of equal rank. Independent clauses can stand alone. These have a subject and verb.
Baker and Byrd will confer at noon. (simple addition)
Baker and Byrd will confer at noon, but experts agree they probably won’t agree.
The men must swim or drown.
The men must swim, or find something to keep them afloat.
(2) Correlative Conjunctions are used in pairs. They connect clauses so closely that neither makes sense without the other. The Correlative Conjunctions are both-and, either-or, neither-nor, Not only-but also.
Both Betty and Ann will attend.
Either Betty or Ann will attend.
Not only Betty but also Ann will attend.
(3) Conjunctive Adverbs act like conjunctions but also like adverbs. They are used for transitions. The conjunctive adverbs are also, furthermore, likewise, Moreover, however, nevertheless, still (meaning but), otherwise, therefore, Hence, accordingly.
When using these adverbs, a semi-colon is used.
Example: Wilson failed to understand that the military units could not move against the enemy; however, he realized his mistake by mid-day.
Wilson failed to understand that the military units could not move against the enemy; nevertheless, he kept trying to get the troops to move.
(4) Subordinating Conjunctions introduce dependent or subordinate clauses and join the subordinate clause to the independent clause. A dependent clause depends on the independent clause for its meaning or complete the thought. The Subordinating Conjunctions are because, as, since, where, whence, Although, though, even, if even it, unless, that, so that, in order that, so, That, such that, as, as if, before, until, when, as since.
Examples: Because he left early, he missed refreshments. (The word, “Because,” makes the words, “he left early,” a dependent clause. Because the sentence starts with a dependent clause, a comma separates the dependent from the independent clause, “he missed refreshments.”
If the independent clause comes first, no comma is needed.
Examples: Where we had decided we would wait, they decided to leave early.
Even if Marcus apologizes, I wouldn’t trust him.
(Now, with the dependent clause following the independent clause) I wouldn’t trust him even if Marcus apologizes.
Although we calculated the math correctly, the teacher said we missed the point.
The teacher said we missed the point although we calculated the math correctly.
If she said so, it must be so.
Unless we try harder, we shall never make the team.
The Prepositions
Prepositions stand before nouns to link the noun to other parts of the sentence. The noun that follows the preposition is the object of the preposition. Prepositions can be explain by how they show position, as in, “I went to the table to….” (the previous shows in a real way). “Beyond that, I have no idea where it went.” (in this previous example, the preposition, “beyond” is in the abstract).
Example: Start a sentence with a Prepositional Phrase.
To all his friends, Mark was the only one to trust.
For the last six years, Maryann labored to raise her grades.
From year to year, the economy improved substantially.
Example: Start a sentence with a Prepositional Phrase.
To all his friends, Mark was the only one to trust.
For the last six years, Maryann labored to raise her grades.
From year to year, the economy improved substantially.
The Verbs
Verbs carry the weight of a sentence, adding color and lending strength to sentence meaning. They have properties to convey exact meaning of time and movement. The subject and verb must agree in number.
There are three kinds of verbs.
(1) Transitive Verbs take a direct object. The boy shot the arrow.
(2) Intransitive Verbs do not transfer action to some person or object. The arrow was shot by the boy.
(3) Linking verbs link subject to an equivalent. The linking verbs are: to be (is, was, etc. al.), appear, become, feel get grow, lie, look, prove, remain, seem, smell, sound, taste.
Example:
The captain is her brother. (This is called a predicate noun)
He was the victim (predicate adjective)
The rose smells sweet (predicate adjective)
There are three kinds of verbs.
(1) Transitive Verbs take a direct object. The boy shot the arrow.
(2) Intransitive Verbs do not transfer action to some person or object. The arrow was shot by the boy.
(3) Linking verbs link subject to an equivalent. The linking verbs are: to be (is, was, etc. al.), appear, become, feel get grow, lie, look, prove, remain, seem, smell, sound, taste.
Example:
The captain is her brother. (This is called a predicate noun)
He was the victim (predicate adjective)
The rose smells sweet (predicate adjective)
The Adjectives
Adjectives modify or tell about nouns and pronouns only. Adjectives change endings to indicate comparison in the positive, the comparative and the superlative.
Positive: He was a small boy. He was a big boy.
Comparative: He was smaller than Bob. He was bigger than Bob.
Superlative: He was the smallest boy. He was the biggest boy.
If the job of the adjective is to modify nouns and pronouns, it makes sense if one uses an adjective to put it next to the noun or pronoun it modifies.
Example: The gray-haired stranger boarded the north-bound bus for the airport.
In the example above, a hyphen connects the words, “gray” and “haired” to become an adjective modifying the noun “stranger.”
If a writer has a choice between lots of adjectives or strong verbs or adverbs, opt for the latter.
Positive: He was a small boy. He was a big boy.
Comparative: He was smaller than Bob. He was bigger than Bob.
Superlative: He was the smallest boy. He was the biggest boy.
If the job of the adjective is to modify nouns and pronouns, it makes sense if one uses an adjective to put it next to the noun or pronoun it modifies.
Example: The gray-haired stranger boarded the north-bound bus for the airport.
In the example above, a hyphen connects the words, “gray” and “haired” to become an adjective modifying the noun “stranger.”
If a writer has a choice between lots of adjectives or strong verbs or adverbs, opt for the latter.
The Pronouns
There are six kinds of pronouns.
1. Personal
There are three grammatical persons:
Singular:
1st person: I
2nd person: you
3rd person: he, she, it
Plural:
1st person: We
2nd person: You
3rd person: they
Exception: in the 3rd person singular, add “-s” to the verb. He runs.
Objective
Singular:
1st person: me
2nd person: you
3rd person: him, her, it
Plural:
1st person: Us
2nd person: You
3rd person: them
Possessive
Singular:
1st person: my
2nd person: yours
3rd person: his, hers, its
Plural:
1st person: ours
2nd person: yours
3rd person: their or theirs*
*There is not the same as their. Their is possessive, 3rd person while there is a place.
2. Relative Pronouns relate one part of a sentence to another part. The relative pronouns are who (subject case) whose (possessive) and whom (objective case)
The word, “that” relates to persons or things while which refers to things only.
Example: The book that I love is my favorite.
Book = subject.
that I love = Relative Clause.
The word, “is” is the verb.
“my” is possessive.
Assignment: look up the word, “favorite,” in the dictionary. What part of speech is it?
3. The Demonstrative Pronouns point out or identify. The Demonstrative Pronouns are This (singular or one),
These (plural, or more than one),
That (singular)
and Those (plural).
Examples: This book is terrible. This book belongs to a whole group, these books are all terrible. That book in particular is terrible. It is one of three, and those books are also terrible.
4. The Reflexive Pronouns refer action back to the subject.
Example: Hobart hurt himself on that last play.
5. The Intensive Pronoun adds “-self” to emphasize or intensify a noun.
Example: I myself am going.
6. The Indefinite Pronouns refer to no one specific person or thing. They can be
either singular, plural or both.
Singluar Indefinite Pronouns: one, anyone, everyone, someone,
Everybody, another.
Plural Indefinite Pronouns: both, many, few, several.
Both (can be either singular or plural): all, none, some
In use, the singular indefinite pronoun must be linked to other pronouns.
Example: Everyone turn in HIS (not their) paper.
None of his papers were good.
Example: Start a sentence with a pronoun. Name the pronoun in this sentence:
Name five Presidents who were generals. (“You” is understood).
In Journalism, editors frown on using the “You” in news writing unless there is a good reason. Which there mostly isn’t.
1. Personal
There are three grammatical persons:
Singular:
1st person: I
2nd person: you
3rd person: he, she, it
Plural:
1st person: We
2nd person: You
3rd person: they
Exception: in the 3rd person singular, add “-s” to the verb. He runs.
Objective
Singular:
1st person: me
2nd person: you
3rd person: him, her, it
Plural:
1st person: Us
2nd person: You
3rd person: them
Possessive
Singular:
1st person: my
2nd person: yours
3rd person: his, hers, its
Plural:
1st person: ours
2nd person: yours
3rd person: their or theirs*
*There is not the same as their. Their is possessive, 3rd person while there is a place.
2. Relative Pronouns relate one part of a sentence to another part. The relative pronouns are who (subject case) whose (possessive) and whom (objective case)
The word, “that” relates to persons or things while which refers to things only.
Example: The book that I love is my favorite.
Book = subject.
that I love = Relative Clause.
The word, “is” is the verb.
“my” is possessive.
Assignment: look up the word, “favorite,” in the dictionary. What part of speech is it?
3. The Demonstrative Pronouns point out or identify. The Demonstrative Pronouns are This (singular or one),
These (plural, or more than one),
That (singular)
and Those (plural).
Examples: This book is terrible. This book belongs to a whole group, these books are all terrible. That book in particular is terrible. It is one of three, and those books are also terrible.
4. The Reflexive Pronouns refer action back to the subject.
Example: Hobart hurt himself on that last play.
5. The Intensive Pronoun adds “-self” to emphasize or intensify a noun.
Example: I myself am going.
6. The Indefinite Pronouns refer to no one specific person or thing. They can be
either singular, plural or both.
Singluar Indefinite Pronouns: one, anyone, everyone, someone,
Everybody, another.
Plural Indefinite Pronouns: both, many, few, several.
Both (can be either singular or plural): all, none, some
In use, the singular indefinite pronoun must be linked to other pronouns.
Example: Everyone turn in HIS (not their) paper.
None of his papers were good.
Example: Start a sentence with a pronoun. Name the pronoun in this sentence:
Name five Presidents who were generals. (“You” is understood).
In Journalism, editors frown on using the “You” in news writing unless there is a good reason. Which there mostly isn’t.
The Nouns
There are two kinds. Both are names of things.
Proper Nouns are the names of persons, places or things. They are capitalized.
Examples: John M. Moonves Dallas, Texas Mountain View College.
Common Nouns. There are five types:
(1) Concrete Common Nouns. The names of things you can see, touch, or measure. tree, tool. table, chair
(2) Abstract Common Nouns are the names of things you cannot see, touch or measure. Honesty, Truth, Fairness.
(3) Collective Common Nouns are names of groups of people or things such as family, congregation, Congress, Parliament, Cabinet.
(4) Gerunds are nouns made from verbs. If a verb ends in “–ing” such as running, and is used as a noun, it is called a Gerund. Running is a great sport. In this case, “Running is used as the subject of the sentence.
(5) Infinitives are the proper names of verbs, as in “to run.” When it is used as a noun, it is called an infinitive. To run is good exercise.
Example: Starting a sentence with a noun.
The mother led the child home.
Honesty is the best policy.
Congress meets today.
Running is a great sport.
To run is exhilarating.
Proper Nouns are the names of persons, places or things. They are capitalized.
Examples: John M. Moonves Dallas, Texas Mountain View College.
Common Nouns. There are five types:
(1) Concrete Common Nouns. The names of things you can see, touch, or measure. tree, tool. table, chair
(2) Abstract Common Nouns are the names of things you cannot see, touch or measure. Honesty, Truth, Fairness.
(3) Collective Common Nouns are names of groups of people or things such as family, congregation, Congress, Parliament, Cabinet.
(4) Gerunds are nouns made from verbs. If a verb ends in “–ing” such as running, and is used as a noun, it is called a Gerund. Running is a great sport. In this case, “Running is used as the subject of the sentence.
(5) Infinitives are the proper names of verbs, as in “to run.” When it is used as a noun, it is called an infinitive. To run is good exercise.
Example: Starting a sentence with a noun.
The mother led the child home.
Honesty is the best policy.
Congress meets today.
Running is a great sport.
To run is exhilarating.
The Articles
The definite article, “the,” and the indefinite articles, “a” and “an,” are often classified as separate parts of speech. Grammarians consider them as “limiting adjectives.”
The indefinite article, “a” is used before words that begin with a consonant, or consonant sounds. Vowels are: a,e,i, o, u. All other letters are consonants.
Example: a table. A future President. A hysterical man. A one-armed cowboy (“one” is pronounced as a “w” as in won). A unique program. (unique is pronounced as a “y”)
The indefinite “an” is used before words that begin with a vowel sound, or with a silent “h” as in “honesty.”
Example: an armored car. An illegal arrest. An heir (the letter, “h” is silent).
The definite article, “the” is used with either consonants or vowels.
Example: the table. The future president. The hysterical man. The woman.
Practice: Use the proper indefinite or definite article before the following words.
Editor, woman, table, automobile, knife
The indefinite article, “a” is used before words that begin with a consonant, or consonant sounds. Vowels are: a,e,i, o, u. All other letters are consonants.
Example: a table. A future President. A hysterical man. A one-armed cowboy (“one” is pronounced as a “w” as in won). A unique program. (unique is pronounced as a “y”)
The indefinite “an” is used before words that begin with a vowel sound, or with a silent “h” as in “honesty.”
Example: an armored car. An illegal arrest. An heir (the letter, “h” is silent).
The definite article, “the” is used with either consonants or vowels.
Example: the table. The future president. The hysterical man. The woman.
Practice: Use the proper indefinite or definite article before the following words.
Editor, woman, table, automobile, knife
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